Weapons of Mass Destruction
What are they?
Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) is a collective term used to describe four classes of weapons systems: nuclear, biological, chemical and radiological. The term NBC – nuclear, biological and chemical is often used in place of WMD but does not include radiological weapons.
WMD can be distinguished from conventional weapons in terms of the collateral damage they can cause to an adversary but also in terms of deterrent potential.
- Nuclear weapons – nuclear weapons use highly enriched uranium or plutonium to generate a nuclear explosion. Uranium occurs naturally but needs to be highly enriched to be “weaponised.” Plutonium is a highly toxic metal generated by nuclear reactors and does not occur naturally. Nuclear weapons can be constructed and detonated in two different ways 1) Gun assembly – where two pieces of enriched uranium are fired at each other to create a nuclear explosion. 2) Implosion – conventional explosives are used to trigger plutonium or uranium causing a nuclear explosion.
- Biological weapons (BW) – biological weapons are organisms that cause human disease, many of which occur naturally and have been “weaponised” to become more potent. BW includes bacteria, viruses, toxins and rickettsia/coxiella. Biological agents come in contagious (such as smallpox) and non-contagious forms (such as anthrax). BW can be spread as particles through aerosols or as microbes used for contamination. The success of BW is dependent on a number of factors such as weather, terrain, temperature and delivery system.
- Chemical weapons (CW) – chemical weapons are chemical agents suitable to be “weaponised” and are highly toxic. Only a select number of poisonous substances are suitable for chemical warfare as they need to be manufactured simply, are stable easily dispersible and can be stored easily. CW can be dispersed through shells, warheads and bombs, as most agents are liquids. The success of CW depends on factors such as terrain, weather conditions temperature and persistence of the chemical agent in question. For example, CW would be more effective against troop encampments and built-up areas, rather than open desert where the agent would quickly dissipate and where they can be affected by changes in the weather.
- Radiological weapons – radiological weapons are made of radioactive material but do not actually cause a nuclear explosion. A radiological weapon would be detonated using conventional explosives to spread high levels of radiation over a wide area such as a major city or economic targets such as ports and airports. The effects of a radiological weapon or “dirty bomb” are hard to predict, as they would depend on both the weather and type of radioactive material used.
History
The term WMD has only recent come into the lexicon but the concept, in one form or another, dates back many hundreds of years. In 1346 the bodies of Tartar soldiers who had died of the Plague were thrown over the walls of the besieged city of Kaffa, in the Crimea to infect the population within .The first serious attempt to use WMD during conflict was the use of poison gas such as phosgene and chlorine on both sides during World War One. During this conflict a variety of delivery methods were experimented with such as hand grenades and gas clouds dependent on wind. By but the end of that war, artillery shells were found to be a far more effective means of delivery.
Due to the horrors of the gases used during World War One the Geneva Protocol was established in 1925.The Protocol was signed by 140 countries and prohibited the use (but not stockpiling) of chemical weapons. Despite this Protocol more advanced chemical weapons continued to be developed. Prior to World War Two, Nazi Germany had stockpiled nerve agents.
The Second World War was the turning point for the use of WMD with the United States detonatation of the first nuclear devices over Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.
Throughout the Cold War the permanent five members of the United Nations Security Council (USA, Russia, UK, France, China) continued to develop nuclear weapons and in some cases chemical and biological weapons.
Why should we be concerned now?
There is increased international concern about the use of WMD for a number of reasons:
1.The collapse of the Soviet Union
When the Soviet Union collapsed four of its successor states inherited nuclear weapons. The security of theses weapons was lax in many cases and it has been impossible to account for all nuclear weapons grade material. It is likely that some has found its way into the hands of terrorists. In 1995, Chechen rebels placed four cases of stolen radioactive caesium in a Moscow park as a warning of what they could do. This incident demonstrated the need for tighter controls, but also managed to succeed in causing panic amongst the Moscow population.
2. Iraq
Iraq has been exposed as attempting to make WMD of its own. Iraq has had nuclear aspirations for many years although its track record in using chemical weapons is far stronger. It attacked Iraqi the Iranian Army using SCUD missiles with chemical warheads during the Iran –Iraq War, and it used chemical weapons on its own citizens in Halabja in 1988. The Iraqi nuclear programme was initially a civilian one supplied by the Soviet Union and France, however Baghdad’s plans were significantly curtailed by an Israeli air strike in 1981 at the Osirak facility and also by subsequent attacks during the Gulf War. It was during the Gulf War that their nuclear aspirations became the focus of world attention. Iraq has continued to try to acquire a variety of materials suitable for WMD since the end of the Gulf War, despite the presence of UN Weapons Inspectors until 1998.
3. Terrorist organisations
Since the events of September 11th 2001 where surprise asymmetric attacks on New York and Washington caused massive casualties there is concern that the next logical step for a well –funded and organised terrorist network like Al-Qaeda is to use a WMD. An example of this is the attack by the Aum Shinrikyo group, an apocalyptic sect in Japan, which released sarin on the Tokyo Subway, killing 12 people and hospitalising a further 500. Ineffective delivery methods and the low purity of the nerve agent meant casualties were low, but the impact of the attack was huge. There is considerable concern that Al-Qaeda, believed to be far better funded and even less fearful of the consequences, could conduct a similar attack. There is also the added risk that the organisation could obtain nuclear material, (not necessarily a weapon), from civilian nuclear reprocessing plants, material in transit or from certain industrial processes. This material could then be turned in to a radiological device and detonated in a major city, potentially spreading high doses of radiation over a wide area.
It is not only non-state actors that wish to acquire WMD capabilities. India and Pakistan both resumed nuclear testing in 1998 and continued with developing medium range ballistic missiles to deliver these weapons. Syria and Libya have both developed extensive chemical weapons capabilities, Libya’s after its clash with Chad in 1986 and Syria after its ongoing disagreements with Israel. As of late 2002, North Korea acknowledged it would restart its civilian nuclear programme closed down since 1994 but many Western observers believe its real purpose is to provide plutonium to make nuclear weapons for domestic use or for sale overseas.
Restrictions on WMD
During the Cold War the main means of controlling WMD was through arms control negotiations. But these were between the superpowers and not smaller powers where the predominant problems lie today.
· The Nuclear Proliferation Treaty (NPT) is a wider international non- proliferation regime (NPT) that entered into force in 1970. Non-nuclear states have to agree to not acquire nuclear weapons and place safeguards on their civilian facilities allowing for inspections by the Vienna based International Atomic Energy Authority (IAEA). The NPT only allows for five “nuclear weapon states” these are the current permanent five members of the UN Security Council. India, Pakistan and Israel are all thought to have nuclear weapons but are not signatories of the NPT.
The Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993 that aims to ban CW by states. The CWC is monitored by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) and can conduct challenge inspections on suspected parties. As of 2002, 143 states have signed the CWC but states such as Iraq, Syria, North Korea and Libya are notable non-signers. The CWC offers no form of enforcement against the transfer to non-state actors.
· The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) of 1972 aims to prevent the development, production and stockpiling of BW. The BWC has been signed by 144 states but does not include a mechanism for verification therefore it difficult to enforce. An additional problem is that much of the equipment used to make BW is classed as “dual-use” i.e. the same equipment can be used to make legitimate applications in medicine and agriculture.
· Other methods of counter-proliferation include military options such as the development of Theatre Missile Defence (TMD) systems to shoot down an NBC armed ballistic missile before it hits a target or the use of pre-emptive strikes (such as the Israeli attack in 1981 on Iraqi nuclear facilities) before any suspected WMD sites become active. There is also the option of preparing a civilian population for any such attacks through vaccines, the issuing of respirators and construction of bunkers but this may have the counter effect of causing more panic and anxiety than an actual attack by WMD.
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